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ANCIENT
TIMES
Indonesia did not exist as yet during the Palaeocene period (70
million years BC), the Eocene period (30 million years BC), the
Oligacene period (25 million years BC) and the Miocene period
(12 million years BC). It is believed that Indonesia must have
existed during the Pleitocene period (4 million years BC) when
it was linked with the present Asian mainland. It was during this
period that the Homonids made their first appearance and Java
Man inhabited the part of the world now called Indonesia. Java
Man, named Pithecanthropus Erectus by Eugence Dubois who found
the fossils on the island of Java, must have been the first inhabitant
of Indonesia.
When
the sea level rose as the result of the melting ice north of Europe
and the American continent, many islands emerged, including the
Indonesian archipelago. It was also during this period (3000-500
BC) that Indonesia was inhabited by Sub Mongoloid migrants from
Asia who later inter-married with the indigenous people. Later
still (1000 BC) inter-marriage occured with Indo-Arians migrants
from the south Asian sub-continent of India.
The
first indian migrants came primarily from Gujarat in Southeast
India during the first Christian era.
The Caka period in Indonesia witnessed the introduction of the
Sanskrit language and the Pallawa script by the Indian Prince
Aji Caka (78 AD). The Devanagari script of the sanskrit language
was also used, as shown in ancient stone and copper inscriptions
(paracasthies) which have been unearthed. The language and script
were adopted and called the Kawi language and included words and
phrases derived from Javanese.
Early
trade relations were established between South India and Indonesia.
Sumatra was then named Swarna Dwipa of "the island of gold,
" Java was called Java Dwipa or "the Rice island,"
and a Hindu kingdom of Crivijaya in Sumatra and Nalanda in South
India were not comfirmed to religious and cultural exchanges.
They later developed diplomatic relations, and even covered a
wide range of trade.
The
influx of Indian settlers continued during the period from the
first to the seventh century AD. Peacefully and gradually the
Hindu religion spread throughout the archipelago. It was adopted
by all layers of the people of Java, but limited to the upper
classes on the other islands
TOP
THE
PERIOD OF HINDU KINGDOMS
Many well-organized kingdoms with a high degree of civilization
were ruled by indigenous kings who had adopted the Hindu or Buddhist
religion. This explains why this period in history is called the
Period of Hindu Kingdoms. It lasted from ancient times to the
16th Century AD. Because the culture and civilization, which emanated
from the Hindu and Buddhist religions, were syncretized with the
local cultural elements, the period was also referred to as the
Hindu-Indonesian period.
Indian
culture and customs were introduced, such as the system of government
in a monarchy, the ancestry system, the organization of military
troops, literature, music and dances, architecture, religious
practices and rituals, and even the division of laborers into
castes or varnas. The Hindu literary works known as Vedas and
the "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" epics were
also introduced through the wayang, or shadow-play performance,
which is still very popular in many parts of present day Indonesia.
The
first Indian Buddhists arrived in Indonesia between the 1st and
2nd Centuries AD. They brought with them Buddhism in its two sects,
Hinayana and Mahayana. The latter became more advanced in the
8th Century AD.
With
the spread of Buddhism to China many Chinese pilgrims sailed to
India through the strait of Malacca. On their way, some stopped
and temporarily stayed in Indonesia to learn more about Buddhism.
In 144 AD a Chinese Buddhist saint, Fa Hsien, was caught in a
storm and landed in Java-Dwipa, or Java island, where he stayed
for five months. The northern part of the island was then ruled
by an Indonesian Hindu King named Kudungga. Kutai, on the island
of Borneo, was successively ruled by the Hindu kings Devawarman,
Aswawarman and Mulawarman.
When
the Greek explorer and geographer, Ptolemy of Alexandria, wrote
on Indonesia, he named either the island of Java or Sumatra "abadiou".
His chronicles described Java as a country with a good system
of government and advanced agriculture, navigation and astronomy.
There was even mention of the "batik" printing process
of cloth that the people already knew. They also made metalware,
used the metric system and printed coins.
Chinese
chronicles of 132 AD described the existence of diplomatic regions
between Java-Dwipa and China.
Ink
and paper had already been in use in China since the 2nd Century
AD. Around 502 AD Chinese annals mentioned the existence of the
Buddhist Kingdom, Kanto Lim in South Sumatra, presumably in the
neighborhood of present-day Palembang. It was ruled by king Gautama
Subhadra, and later by his son Pyrawarman of Vinyawarman who established
diplomatic relations with China. Because of a spelling or pronunciation
difficulty, what the Chinese called "Kanto Li" was probably
Crivijaya, a mighty Buddhist kingdom. On his way to India, the
Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, I Tsing, visited Crivijaya in 671 AD
to study the Sanskrit language. He returned 18 years later, in
689 AD Crivijaya was then the center of Buddhist learning and
had many well-known philosophy scholars like Sakyakirti, Dharmapala
and Vajabudhi.
The
kingdom had diplomatic relations with the south Indian kingdom
of Nalanda. The Crivijaya mission built a school on its premises
where Indians could learn the art of molding bronze statues and
broaden their knowledge of the Buddhist philosophy. With the spread
of Buddhism, Crivijaya's influence reached out to many other parts
of the archipelago.
Another
known Buddhist kingdom was Cailendra in Central Java. It was ruled
by the kings of Cailendra Dynasty. During their rule (750-850
AD) the famous Buddhist temple, Borobudur, was built. In 772 AD
other Buddhist temple were also build. They include the Mendut,
Kalasan and Pawon temples. All of these temples are now preserved
as tourist objects near the city of Yogyakarta. The Cailendra
kingdom was also known for its commercial and naval power, and
its flourishing arts and culture. A guide to team singing, known
as the Chandra Cha-ana, was first written in 778 AD.
One
of the Pallawa language-stone inscriptions of 732 AD mentioned
the name of King Sanjaya, who was later identified as the king
of Mataram, a kingdom that replaced Cailendra in Central Java.
The
Prambanan temple, which was dedicated to Lord Civa, was started
in 856 AD and completed in 900 AD by King Daksa. Earlier Civa
temples were built in 675 AD on the Dieng mountain range, southwest
of Medang Kamolan, the capital of the Mataram Kingdom.
In
West Java were the kingdoms of Galuh, Kanoman, Kuningan and Pajajaran.
The latter was founded by King Purana with Pakuan as its capital.
It replaced the kingdom of Galuh. The kingdoms of Taruma Negara,
Kawali and Parahyangan Sunda came later.
At
the end of the 13th Century, the Crivijaya Empire began to fall
as a result of severance by its vassal states and frequent attacks
by the south Indian kingdom of Chola and by the Majapahit Kingdom.
In the end, Crivijaya was completely conquered by Majapahit with
the support of King Aditiawarman of the Melayu kingdom.
Earlier,
Majapahit had conquered the kingdom of Jambi in East Sumatra and,
by moving its expansion along the rivers, it finally annexed the
kingdom of Pagar Ruyung in West Sumatra. Thus, all of Sumatra
came under Majapahit's rule.
Meanwhile,
for unknown reasons, the mighty kingdoms of Central Java disappeared
from historic records and new prosperous kingdom emerged in East
Java. King Balitung, who ruled between 820 and 832 AD, succeeded
in uniting the Central and East Java kingdoms. The disappearance
of records was presumably caused by a natural disaster or an epidemic.
At
the end of the 10th Century (911-1007 AD) the powerful kingdom
of Singasari emerged in East Java under King Dharmawangsa. He
codified laws and translated into Javanese the "Mahabharata"
epic and its basic philosophy, as exposed in the Bhisma Parva
scripture. He also ordered the 12 translations of the Hindu holy
book, the Bhagavat Gita.
Meanwhile,
the island of Bali was ruled by King Airlangga, known as a wise
and strong ruler. He had water-works built along the Brantas River
that are still in use today. Before his death in 1409 AD he divided
his kingdom into the kingdoms of Janggala and Daha or Kediri.
These were to be ruled by his two sons.
Under
Airlangga's rule literary works flourished. The Panji novels written
during this period are still popular today. They are even taught
in the art faculties of the universities in Thailand, Kampuchea
and Malaysia.
King
Jayabaya of Kediri 1135-1157 wrote a book in which he foretold
the downfall of Indonesia. Subsequently, so he wrote, the country
would be ruled by a white race, to be followed by a yellow race.
His prediction turned out to be Dutch colonial rule and the Japanese
occupation of the country during World War. However, Jayabaya
also predicted that Indonesia would ultimately regain her independence.
During the golden period of the Kediri Kingdom many other literary
works were produced, including the Javanese version of the Mahabharata
by Mpu (saint) Sedah and his brother Mpu Panuluh. This work was
published in 1157.
The
kingdoms of East Java were later succeeded by the Majapahit Kingdom,
first ruled by Prince Wiiaya who was also known as King Kartarajasa.
The
Moghul emperor, Kubilai Khan attempted to invade Majapahit. His
troops, however, were defeated and driven back to their ships.
As Majapahit grew to become a powerful empire, it conquered the
kingdom of Crivijaya in South Sumatra. As mentioned earlier, this
kingdom has once been attacked by the Indian kingdom of Chola.
Under
King Hayam Wuruk the Majapahit Empire became the most powerful
kingdom in the history of Indonesia. It had dependencies in territories
beyond the borders of the present archipelago, such as Champa
in North Vietnam, Kampuchea and the Philippines (1331-1364). King
Hayam Wuruk, with his able premier Gajah Mada, succeeded in gradually
uniting the whole archipelago under the name of Dwipantara.
During
this golden period of Majapahit many literary works were produced.
Among them was "Negara Kertagama," by the famous author
Prapancha (1335-1380). Parts of the book described the diplomatic
and economic ties between Majapahit and numerous Southeast Asian
countries including Myanmar, Thailand, Tonkin, Annam, Kampuchea
and even India and China. Other works in Kawi, the old Javanese
language, were "Pararaton," "Arjuna Wiwaha,"
"Ramayana," and "Sarasa Muschaya." These works
were later translated into modern European languages for educational
purposes.
TOP
THE
PERIOD OF ISLAMIC KINGDOMS
Moslem
merchants from Gujarat and Persia began visiting Indonesia in
the 13th Century and established trade links between this country
and India and Persia. Along with trade, they propagated Islam
among the Indonesians people, particularly along the coastal areas
of Java, like Demak. At a later stage they even influenced and
converted Hindu kings to Islam, the first being the Sultan of
Demak. This Moslem Sultan later spread Islam westwards to Cirebon
and Banten, and eastward along the northern coast of Java to the
kingdom of Gresik. In the end, he brought the downfall of the
powerful kingdom of Majapahit (1293-1520).
After the fall of Majapahit, Islam spread further east to where
the sultanates of Bone and Goa in Sulawesi were established. Also
under the influence of Islam, were the sultanates of Ternate and
Tidore in the Maluku.
North of Java, the religion spread to Banjarmasin in Borneo and
further west to Sumatra, where Palembang, Minangkabau (West Sumatra),
Pasai and Periak were converted.
Meanwhile, descendants of the Majapahit aristocracy, religious
scholars and Hindu Ksatriyas retreated through the East Java peninsula
of Blambangan to the island of Bali and Lombok. In a later period,
however, the eastern part of Lombok was converted to Islam, which
entered the island from the southern Sulawesi city of Makassar,
now named Ujungpandang.
The capital of the West Java Kingdom of Pajajaran was Sunda Kelapa
(1300 AD). It was located in the present capital city of Indonesia,
Jakarta. In 1527 Sunda Kelapa was conquered by Falatehan, and
Islamic troop commander of the sultanate of Demak. After his conquest
the city was renamed Jaya Karta, meaning "the great city,"
this was the origin of the present name, Jakarta. Falatehan also
defeated the Portuguese, who had also tried to seize the city.
TOP
THE
PORTUGUESE IN INDONESIA
In their search for spices, the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia
in 1511, after their conquest of the Islamic kingdom of Malacca
on the Malay Peninsula. They were followed by the Spaniards. Both
began to propagate Christianity and were most successful in Maluku,
also known as the Moluccas.
TOP
THE
BEGINNING OF DUTCH COLONIALISM
Meanwhile,
the Dutch had started their quest for Indonesia spices to sell
on the European market at big profit. For the purpose of more
efficient and better organized merchant trade they established
the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602. To protect the merchants
fleet from frequent pirate attacks on the high seas, Dutch warships
were ordered to accompany it.
After the nationalization of the VOC in 1799, the Dutch Government
had a firm grip on the vital territories of the country. People
in those territories were forced to surrender their agricultural
produce to the Dutch merchants. It was the beginning of Dutch
colonialism in Indonesia. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Batavia.
Meanwhile, the Hindu Kingdom of Mataram converted to Islam and
was ruled by the Muslim, Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo. He developed
the political power of the state and was a keen patron of the
arts and culture. In 1633 he introduced the Islamic Javanese calendar.
Sultan Agung was a fierce enemy of the Dutch. In 1629 he sent
his troops to attack Batavia, but they were repulsed by the troops
of Governor General Jan Pieterszoon Coen.
After the seizure of Ambon in the Moluccas in 1605 and Banda Island
in 1623, the Dutch secured the trade monopoly of the spice islands.
A policy of ruthless exploitation by "divide and rule"
tactics was carried out. In this way indigenous inter-island trade,
like that between Makassar, Aceh, Mataram and Banten, as well
as overseas trade, was gradually paralyzed. Indonesia was reduced
to an agricultural country to supply European markets. At the
some time, the Dutch adopted a so-called open- door policy toward
the Chinese in order that they could serve as middlemen in their
trade with Indonesia.
War
against the Dutch
Sultan Hasanuddin of Goa waged a war against the Dutch in 1666.
But was defeated and Goa became a vassal state of the VOC under
the treaty of Bunggaya of 1667.
Prince Trunojoyo of Madura also fought the Dutch. He was defeated
and killed in 1680.
To reinforce their spice monopoly in the Moluccas, the Dutch undertook
their notorious Hongi expeditions, whereby they burned down the
clove gardens of the people in an effort to eliminate overproduction,
which brought down the prices of cloves on the European markets.
In these outrageous expeditions countless atrocities were commifted
against people who defended their crops.
In 1740 the Dutch suppressed a rebellion in Jakarta that was sparked
by dissatisfied Chinese, who were later joined by Indonesians.
Ten thousand Chinese were massacred.
The Kingdom of Mataram began to see its downfall after it was
divided by the VOC into the Principalities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta.
However, mismanagement and corruption forced the VOC into bankruptcy
and on December 31, 1799, all its territories in Indonesia were
taken over by the Dutch Administration in Batavia.
TOP
BRITISH
TEMPORARY RULE
In 1814 the British come to Indonesia and built Fort York in Bengkulu
on the west coast of Sumatra. It was later renamed Fort Marlborough.
During the Napoleonic wars in Europe when Holland was occupied
by France, Indonesia fell under the rule of the British East India
Company (1811-1816). Sir Thomas Stanford Raffles was appointed
Lieutenant Governor General of Java and dependencies. He was subordinated
to the Governor General in Bengal, India.
Raffles introduced partial self-government and abolished the slave
trade. In those days slaves were captured and traded by foreigners.
He also introduced the land-tenure system, replacing the hated
Dutch forced-agricultural system, whereby crops were grown and
surrendered to the Government.
Borobudur and other temples were restored and research conducted.
Raffles wrote his famous book, "The History of Java,"
in which he described Java's high civilization and culture.
During the British stay in Sumatra (1814-1825), William Marsden
wrote a similar book on the history of Sumatra, which was published
in 1889.
After the fall of Napoleon, and the end of the French occupation
of Holland the British and Dutch signed a convention in London
on August 13, 1814, in which it was agreed that Dutch colonial
possessions dating from 1803 onwards should be returned to the
Dutch Administration in Batavia. Thus, the Indonesian archipelago
was recovered from the British in 1815.
TOP
RETURN
OF DUTCH RULE
Soon
the Dutch intensified their colonial rule. But this only sparked
widespread revolts to seize freedom. These revolts, however, were
suppressed one after the other.
To mention only a few: Thomas Matulessy, alias Pattimura, staged
a revolt against the Dutch in the Moluccas (1816-1818). Prince
Diponegoro of Mataram led the Java War from 1825 until 1830. Again,
it was fierce struggle for freedom. Tuanku Imam Bonjol led the
Padri War in West Sumatra, while Teuku Umar headed the Aceh War
in North Sumatra (1 873-1903). King Sisingamangaraja of the Bataks
revolved against the Dutch in 1907. An attempt by the Dutch troops
to occupy Bali in 1908 was repelled by King Udayana. Revolts were
also staged in Goa, South Sulawesi, and in South Kalimantan.
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NATIONALIST
MOVEMENTS
When
all these regional wars of independence failed, Indonesian nationalists
began thinking of a more-organized struggle against Dutch colonialism.
The move began with the founding-of Boedi Oetomo, literally meaning
"noble conduct," on May 20, 1908. This organization
of Indonesian intellectuals was initially set up for educational
purposes but later turned to politics. It was inspired by Japan's
victory over Russia in 1901, which also gave impetus to nationalist
movements in many parts of Indonesia. The founder of Boedi Oetomo
was Dr. Soetomo who was, at the time, a student of STOVIA, an
institution of train Indonesian medical officers. Dr. Soetomo
was greafly influenced by Dr. Wahidin Soedirohoesodo and supported
by Gunawan and Suradji.
In 1912 Sarekat Dagang Islam, the Association of Moslem Merchants,
was formed by Haji Samanhudi and others. Its objective was at
first to stimulate and promote the interest of Indonesian business
in the Dutch East Indies. However, in 1912 this organization of
middle class businessmen turned into a political party and was
renamed Sarekat Islam under the leadership of H.O.S. Tjokroaminoto,
Haji Agoes Salim and others.
In 1912 a progressive Moslem organization, Muhammadiyah, was established
by K.H. Akhmad Dahlan in Yogyakarta for the purpose of social
and economic reforms.
In December of the some year Partai Indonesia was founded by Douwes
Dekker, later named Setiabudi, with Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo and
Ki Hajar Dewantoro. The objective of the party was to strive for
complete independence of Indonesia. All three leaders of the party
were exiled by the colonial government in 1913.
In 1914 communism was introduced in the East Indies by three Dutch
nationals-Sneevliet, Baars and Brandsteder.
In May 1920 Sarikat Islam split into a right and a left wing,
the later was to become the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI, the
Indonesian Communist Party) under the leadership of Semaun, Darsono,
Alimin, Muso and others.
The
Powerless People's Council or Volksraad
In 1916 Sarikat Islam held its first convention in Bandung and
resolved the demand self-government for Indonesia in cooperation
with the Dutch. When Sarikat Islam demanded a share in the legislative
power in the colony, the Dutch responded by setting up the Volksraad
in 1918 which was virtually a powerless people's council with
an advisory status.
Indonesian representatives on the council were indirectly elected
through regional councils, but some of the other members were
appointed colonial officials.
The Volksraad later developed into a semi-legislative assembly.
Among the members of this body were prominent nationalist leaders
like Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo, H.O.S. Tjokroaminoto, Abdul Muis,
Dr. G.S.S.J. Ratulangi, M.H. Thamrin, Wiwoho, Sutardjo Kartohadikusumo,
Dr. Radjiman, and Soekardjo Wiryopronoto.
Under the pressure of the social unrest in the Netherlands at
the end of World War 1, the Dutch promised to grant self-government
to Indonesians. This was known as the "November promise."
It was a promise that never met.
Besides the Volksraad, there was another body called Raad van
Indie, "the Council of the Indies," whose the members
were appointed by the Government Achmad Djajadiningrat and Sujono
were among the very few Indonesian members of this council.
Restrictions
of Civil Liberties
In 1923 deteriorating economic conditions and increasing labor
strikes prompted the colonial government to put severe restrictions
on Indonesian civil liberties and make amendments to the colonial
laws and penal codes. Freedom of assembly, speech and expression
in writing was restricted.
Further
Growth of Indonesian Organizations
Despite
the political restrictions, on July 3, 1922 Ki Hajar Dewantoro
founded Taman Siswa, an organization to promote national education.
In 1924 the Indonesian Students Association, "Perhimpunan
Mahasiswa Indonesia," was formed by Drs. Mohammad Hatta,
Dr. Sukiman and others. This organization became a driving force
of the nationalist movement to gain independence.
The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) staged revolts against the
colonial government in November 1926 in West Java, and in January
1927 in West Sumatra. After their suppression the Government exiled
many non-communist nationalist leaders to Tanah Merah, which the
Dutch called "Boven Digul" in Irian Jaya. Dr. Tjipto
Mangunkusumo was exiled to Bandaneira.
In February 1927 Mohammad Hatta, Achmad Soebardjo and other members
of lndonesia's Movements attended the first international convention
of the "League Against Imperialism and Colonial Oppression"
in Brussels, together with Jawaharlal Nehru and many other prominent
nationalist leaders from Asia and Africa.
In July 1927, Soekarno, Sartono and others formed the Indonesian
Nationalist Party (PNI), which adopted Bahasa Indonesia as the
official language. This party adopted a militant policy of noncooperation
with the Government as the result of a fundamental conflict of
interest between Indonesian nationalism and Dutch colonialism.
In the same year, and all-Indonesia nationalist movement was organized
by Indonesian youth and women to replace earlier organizations,
which had been based regionalism, such as "Young Java,"
"Young Sumatra" and "Young Ambon."
On October 28, 1928, delegates to the second Indonesian Youth
Congress in Jakarta pledge allegiance to "one country, one
nation and one language, Indonesia."
Meanwhile, the Technical Faculty was set up in Bandung in1920,
and the Law Faculty was opened in Jakarta in 1924 to replace the
former Law School. The Medical Faculty was opened in Jakarta in
1927 to replace the old Medical School. Except for the Technical
Faculty in Bandung, all the faculties in Jakarta were merged in
the University of Indonesia in 1964 in independent Indonesia.
Concerned about the growing national awareness of freedom, the
colonial authorities arrested the PNI leader, Soekarno, in December
1929. This touched off widespread protests by Indonesians.
In 1930 the world was in the grip of an economic and monetary
crisis. The severe impact of the crisis was felt in the Indies,
a raw material producing country. The colonial government responded
with a strict balance budget policy that aggravated economic and
social conditions.
Two other leaders of the PNI, Gatot Mangkupradja and Maskun Supriadinata,
were arrested and tried in court on charges of plotting against
the Government. Soekarno was released in September 1931 but exiled
again in August 1933. He remained in Dutch custody until the Japanese
invasion in 1942.
In January 1931, Dr. Soetomo founded Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia,
the Indonesian Unity Party. Its objective was to improve the social
status of the Indonesian people.
In
April of the same year, PNI was abandoned. A new party was formed
by Sartono, LLM and named Partai Indonesia, the Indonesian Party.
Its basis was nationansm, its line was independence.
Also in 1931, Sutan Syahrir formed Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia.
Known as the new PNI, it envisaged national education. Mohammad
Hatta joined this organization.
In 1933 a mutiny broke out on the Dutch warship "De Zeven
Provincien" for which Indonesian nationalists were held responsible.
The following year Sutan Syahrir and Mohammad Hatta and other
nationalist leaders were arrested and banished until1942.
In 1935, Soetomo merged Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia and Boedi Oetomo
to form Partai Indonesia Raya (Parindra). Its fundamental goal
was the independence of Great Indonesia.
The
Indonesian Petition
In July 1936, Sutardio submitted to the "Volksraad"
a petition calling for greater autonomy for Indonesia. This petition
was flatly rejected by the Dutch-dominated Council.
In 1937 Dr. A.K. Gani started the Indonesian People's Movement,
Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia, which was based on the principles of
nationalism, social independence and self-reliance.
In 1939 the All Indonesian Political Federation, GAPI, called
for the establishment of a full-fledged Indonesian parliament.
This demand was rejected by the Government in Holland in 1940.
GAPI also demanded an Indonesian military service for the purpose
of defending the country in times of war. Again, this was turned
down, notwithstanding the impending outbreak of World War II.
At the time, there were widespread movements for fundamental and
progressive reforms in the colonies and dependencies in Asia.
TOP
THE
JAPANESE OCCUPATION
After
their attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, the Japanese forces moved
southwards to conquer several Southeast Asian countries. After
Singapore had fallen, they invaded the Dutch East Indies and the
colonial army surrendered in March 1942.
Soekarno and Hatta were released from their detention. The Japanese
began their propaganda campaign for what they called "Great
East Asia Coprosperity". But Indonesians soon realized that
it was a camouflage for Japanese imperialism in place of Dutch
colonialism.
To further the cause of Indonesia's independence, Soekarno and
Hatta appeared to cooperate with the Japanese authorities. In
reality, however, Indonesian nationalist leaders went underground
and masterminded insurrections in Blitar (East Java), Tasikmalaya
and Indramayu (West Java), and in Sumatra and Kalimantan.
Under the pressure of the 4th Pacific war, where their supply
lines were interrupted, and the increasing of Indonesian insurrections,
the Japanese ultimately gave into allow the red-and-white flag
to fly as the Indonesian national flag. Recognition of "Indonesia
Raya" as the national anthem and Bahasa Indonesia as the
national language followed. Hence, the youth's pledge of 1928
was fulfilled.
After persistent demands, the Japanese finally agreed to place
the civil administration of the county into Indonesian hands.
This was a golden opportunity for nationalist leaders to prepare
for the proclamation of lndonesia's independence.
TOP
THE
BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC
The
Republic of Indonesia first saw light on August 17, 1945, when
its independence was proclaimed just days after the Japanese surrender
to the Allies. Pancasila became the ideological and philosophical
basis of the Republic, and on August 18, 1945 the Constitution
was adopted as the basic law of the country.
Following the provisions of the Constitution, the country is headed
by a President who is also the Chief Executive. He is assisted
by a Vice-President and a cabinet of ministers.
The sovereignty of the people rests with the People's Consultative
Assembly (MPR). Hence, the President is accountable to the MPR.
The legislative power is vested in the House of Representafives
(DPR).
Other institutions of the state are the Supreme Court, the Supreme
Advisory Council and the Supreme Audit Board.
Soekarno became the first President and Chief Executive, and Mohammad
Hatta, the first Vice-President of the Republic. On September
5, 1945 the first cabinet was formed.
The
War of Independence
The
infant republic was soon faced with military threats to its very
existence. British troops landed in Indonesia as a contingent
of the Allied Forces to disarm the Japanese. Dutch troops also
seized this opportunity to land in the country, but for a different
purpose, - namely, to regain control of the former East Indies.
At the beginning they were assisted by British troops under General
Christison, a fact later admitted by Lord Louis Mountbatten, the
Commander of the Allied Forces in Southeast Asia based in Myanmar.
In fact, the British troops were officially only assigned to the
task of repatriating Allied prisoners of war and internees.
On November 10, 1945, fierce fighting broke out between British
troops and Indonesian freedom fighters in which the British lost
Brigadier Mallaby. As a result, the British turned to all-out
combat from the sea, air and land. The newly-recruited army of
the Republic soon realized the superiority of the British forces
and withdrew from urban battles. They subsequently formed guerrilla
units and fought together with armed groups of the people.
Under the pretext of representing the Allied Forces, the Dutch
sent in more troops to attack Indonesian strongholds. Between
1945 and 1949 they undertook two military actions.
Diplomacy
and Fighting
Meanwhile, on November 11, 1945, Vice-President Hatta issued a
manifesto that outlined the basic policy of the new Republic.
It was a policy of good neighborhood and peace 22 with the rest
of the world.
On November 14 of the same year, the newly-appointed Prime Minister,
Sutan Syahrir, introduced a parliamentary system, with party representation,
in the Republic.
On December 22, Sutan Syahrir announced Indonesia's acceptance
of the British proposal to disarm and confine to internment camps
25,000 Japanese troops throughout the country. This task was successfully
carried out by TNI, the Indonesian National Army. Repatriation
of the Japanese troops began on April 28, 1946.
Because fighting with Dutch troops continued, the seat of the
Republican Government was moved from Jakarta to Yogyakarta on
January 4, 1946.
The
Indonesian Question in the United Nations
The war in Indonesia posed a threat to international peace and
security. In the spirit of article 24 of the United Nations' Charter,
the question of Indonesia was officially brought before the Security
Council by Jacob Malik of the Soviet Unions. Soon afterwards,
on February 10, 1946, the first official meeting of Indonesian
and Dutch representatives took place under the chairmanship of
Sir Archibald Clark Kerr.
But the freedom fight continued and Dutch military aggressions
met with stiff resistance from Indonesian troops. The Indonesian
Government conducted a diplomatic offensive against the Dutch.
With the good offices of Lord Killearn of Great Britain, Indonesian
and Dutch representatives met at Linggarjati in West Java. The
negotiations resulted in the de facto recognition by the Dutch
of lndonesia's sovereignty over Java, Sumatra and Madura. The
Linggarjati Agreement was initiated on November 1946 and signed
on March 25, 1947.
But the agreement was a violation of Indonesia's independence
proclamation of August 17, 19A5, which implied sovereignty over
the whole territory of the Republic. As such, it met with the
widespread disapproval of the people. Hence, guerrilla fighting
continued, bringing heavy pressure on Dutch troops.
In July 1947 the Dutch launched a military offensive to reinforce
their urban bases and to intensify their attacks on guerrilla
strongholds. The offensive was, however, put to end by the signing
of the Renville Agreement on January 17, 1948. The negotiation
was initiated by India and Australia and took place under the
auspices of the UN Security Council.
It was during these critical moments that the Indonesian Communist
Party (PKI) stabbed the newly- proclaimed Republic of Indonesia
in the back by declaring the formation of the "Indonesian
People's Republic" in Madiun, East Java. Muso led an attempt
to overthrow the Government, but this was quickly stamped out
and he was killed.
In violation of the Renville agreement, on December 19, 1948,
the Dutch launched their second military aggression. They invaded
the Republic capital of Yogyakarta, arrested President Soekarno,
Vice-President Mohammad Hatta and other leaders, and detained
them on the island of Bangka, off the east coast of Sumatra. A
caretaker Government, with headquarters in Bukittinggi, West Sumatra,
was set up under Syafruddin Prawiranegara.
On the initiative of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru of India, a meeting
of 19 nations was convened in New Delhi that produced a resolution
for submission to the United Nations, pressing for total Dutch
surrender of sovereignty to the Republic of Indonesia by January
1, 1950. It also pressed for the release of all Indonesian detainees
and the return of territories seized during the military actions.
On January 28, 1949, the UN Security Council adopted a resolution
to establish a cease-fire, the release of Republican leaders and
their Yogyakarta.
The Dutch, however, were adamant and continued to occupy the city
of Yogyakarta in ignorance of the Republican Government and the
National Army. They deliberately issued a false statement to the
world that the Government and the army of the Republic of Indonesia
no longer existed.
To prove that the Dutch claim was a mere fabrication, Lieutenant
Colonel Soeharto, now President of the Republic, led an all-out
attack on the Dutch troops in Yogyakarta on March 1, 1949, and
occupied the city for several hours. This offensive is recorded
in lndonesia's history as "the first of March all-out attack"
to show to the world at the time that the Republic and its military
were not dead.
Consequently, on May 7, 1949, an agreement was signed by Mohammad
Roem of Indonesia and Van Rooyen of the Netherlands, to end hostilities,
restore the Republican Government in Yogyakarta, and to hold further
negotiations at a round table conference under the auspices of
the United Nations.
World
Recognition and Indonesia's Sovereignty
The Round Table conference was opened in the Hague on August 23,
1949, under the auspices of the UN. It was concluded on November
2 with an agreement that Holland was to recognize the sovereignty
of the Republic of Indonesia.
On December 27, 1949 the Dutch East Indies ceased to exist. It
now became the sovereign Federal Republic of Indonesia with a
federal constitution. The constitution, inter alia, provided for
a parliamentary system in which the cabinet was responsible to
Parliament. The question of sovereignty over Irian Jaya, formerly
West New Guinea, was suspended for further negotiations between
Indonesia and the Netherlands. This issue remained a perpetual
source of conflict between the two countries for more than 13
years. On September 28, 1950, Indonesia became a member of the
United Nations.
The
Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia
On August 17, 1950 the Unitary State of the Republic on Indonesia,
as originally proclaimed, was restored. However, the liberal democratic
system of government was retained whereby the cabinet would be
accountable to the House of Representatives. This was a source
of political instability with frequent changes in government.
In the absence of a stable government, it was utterly impossible
for a newly-independent state to embark on any development program.
With the return of the unitary state, the President once again
assumed the duties of Chief Executive and the Mandatary of the
Provisional People's Consultative Assembly. He is assisted by
a Vice-President and a cabinet of his own choosing. The Executive
is not responsible to the House of Representatives.
Challenges
to " Unitary State"
The philosophy behind the Unitary State was that a pluralistic
country like Indonesia could only be independent and strong if
it was firmly united and integrated. This was obviously the answer
to the Dutch colonial practice of divide and rule. Hence, the
national motto was "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" as referred
to earlier.
However, no sooner was the Unitary State re-established then it
had to face numerous armed rebellions. The Darul Islam rebels
under Kartosuwiryo terrorized the countryside of West Java in
their move to establish an Islamic State. It took years to stamp
them out. Then there was the terrorist APRA band of former Dutch
army captain Turco Westerling, which claimed the lives of thousands
of innocent people.
Outside Java, demobilized ex-colonial arm men who remained loyal
to the Dutch crown, staged a revolt and proclaimed what they called
"the Republic of South Maluku".
In South Sulawesi an ex-colonial army officer, Andi Aziz, also
rebelled. In Kalimantan lbnu Hadjar lead another armed revolt.
Sumatra could also account for a number of separafist movements.
And, to complete the list, the Indonesian Communist Party again
staged an abortive coup under the name of 30th September movement,
when they kidnaped and killed six of the country's top army generals
in the early hours of October 1, 1965.
The
Asian-African Conference
President
Soekamo had to his credit the holding of the Asian-African Conference
in Bandung, West Java, from April 1 8 to 24, 1955. The initiative
was taken by Indonesia, India, Pakistan, Myanmar and Ceylon (Sri
Lanka). The conference was attended by delegates from 24 Asian
and African countries. The purpose of the meeting was to promote
closer and amiable cooperation in the economic, cultural and political
fields. The resolution adopted became known as the "Dasa
Sila", or "The Ten Principles," of Bandung. It
strives for world peace, respect for one another's sovereignty
and territorial integrity, and for non-interference in each other's
internal affairs. The resolution also seeks to uphold the human
rights principles of the United Nations.
TOP
THE
COMMUNIST ABORTIVE COUP
Over-confident
of their strength and precipitated by the serious illness of President
Soekarno, who was undergoing treatment by a Chinese medical team
from Beijing, the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) attempted another
coup on September 30, 1965. The uprising, however, was abrupt
and quickly stamped out by the Armed Forces under Major General
Soeharto, then Chief of the Army's Strategic Command.
On the night of September 30, or more precisely in the early hours
of October 1, 1965, armed PKI men and members of Cakrabirawa,
the President's security guard, set out to kidnap, torture and
kill six top Army Generals. Their bodies were dumped in an abandoned
well at Lubang Buaya, on the outskirts of Jakarta. The coup was
staged in the wake of troop deployments to Kalimantan, at the
height of Indonesia's confrontation with Malaysia. Moreover, at
the time, many cabinet members were attending a celebration of
the Chinese October Revolution in Beijing. It was during this
power vacuum that the communists struck again.
Under instructions from General Soeharto, crack troops of the
Army's Commando Regiment (RPKAD) freed the central radio station
(RRI) and the telecommunication center from communist occupation.
Students made for the streets in militant demonstrations to fight
for a three-point claim, or "Tritura," that aimed to
ban the PKI, replace Soekamo's cabinet ministers, and reduce the
prices of basic necessities. They set up a "street parliament"
to gather the demands of the people.
Under these explosive conditions, President Soekarno eventually
gave in and granted Soeharto full power to restore order and security
in the country. The transfer of power was effected by a presidential
order known as "the 11th of March order" of 1966. Soon
afterwards, on March 12, 1966, General Soeharto banned the PKI.
This decision was endorsed and sanctioned by virtue of the Provisional
People's Consultative Assembly Decree No XXV/MPRS/1966. He also
formed a new cabinet, but Soekarno remained as Chief Executive.
This brought dualism into the cabinet, particularly when Soekarno
did not show support for the cabinet's program to establish political
and economic stability. Hence, a special session of the Provisional
People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) was convened from March
7-12, 1967. The Assembly resolved to relieve Soekarno of his presidential
duties and appointed Soeharto as Acting President, pending the
election of a new President by an elected People's Consultative
Assembly.
TOP
THE
NEW ORDER GOVERNMENT
Ever
since taking office in 1967, the New Order Government of President
Soeharto was determined to return constitutional life by upholding
the 1945 Constitution in a strict and consistent manner and by
respecting Pancasila as the state philosophy and ideology.
To emerge from the political and economic legacy of Soekarno's
Old Order, the new government set out to undertake the following:
- To complete
the restoration of order and security and to establish political
stability
- To carry out
economic rehabilitation.
- To prepare a
plan for and execute national development with the emphasis
on economic development.
- To end confrontation
and normalize diplomatic relations with Malaysia.
- To return to
the United Nations, which Indonesia had quit in January 1965.
- To consistently
pursue an independent and active foreign policy.
- To resolve the
West Irian question.
- To regain lndonesia's
economic credibility overseas.
- To hold general
elections once every five years.
Much
of the implementation of these policies has been described in
the foregoing pages. It remains here to mention some of the more
notable achievements of the New Order during the first few years
of its existence. Results of national development are presented
in this book under the heading "Development Achievements"
and are updated each year.
With regard to Malaysia, not only were relations normalized but
Indonesia together with Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and
Thailand joined to establish the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN). On achieving independence in 1984, Brunei Darussalam
become the sixth member of ASEAN.The objective of the association
is the establishment of regional cooperation in the economic,
social and cultural fields, but ASEAN also operates in the political
area.
To prepare for national development, in addition to economic rehabilitation,
Indonesia secured an agreement with creditor countries to reschedule
an overseas debt of US$ 5 billion. With the recovery of the country's
overseas credibility, Indonesia succeeded in the formation of
a consortium of creditor countries to assist in her economic development.
This consortium is known as the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia
(IGGI) and includes the United States, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, Japan, Britain and a number of West-European countries.
Its annual meetings are held in Amsterdam under the chairmanship
of the Netherlands.
East
Timor's Integration
History recorded that in 672 AD Timor was part of the Crivijaya
Kingdom. Later the island belonged to the Majapahit Kingdom for
200 years, until 1520.
In the last quarter of the 16th Century the Portuguese subjugated
Sultan Baabullah of Ternate, then the overlord toTimor.
In 1651 the Dutch invaded Kupang in Western Timor and on April
20, 1859, concluded a treaty with Portugal whereby the latter
was granted the right only to the northern part of Timor, Atauro
Island and Oecussi, a tiny Sultanate in the Dutch-controlled part
of West Timor.
In a statement on May 28, 1974, the Governor of Portuguese Timor,
Colonel Fernando Alves Aldela, granted the people permission to
form political parties. The response was the emergence of five
political parties - UDT (Uniao Democratica Timorese), FRETILIN
(Frente Revolucionaria de Timor Leste lndependent), APODETI (Associacao
Popular Democratica de Timor),KOTA (Klibur Oan Timur Aswain) and
TRABALHISTA (Labor Party).
Through lack of popular support, FRETILIN resorted to terror tactics,
threats and blackmail in an attempt to intimidate members of the
other parties. This caused growing tension throughout the colony
and sparked an inevitable civil war.
On August 27, 1975, the Governor and other Portuguese officials
abandoned the capital of Dili, fled to Atauro Island and left
FRETILIN free to continue its reign of terror. FRETILIN was even
supplied with arms from the Portuguese army arsenal.
On November 28 of the some year, FRETILIN unilaterally "declared
the independence" of East Timor and announced the formation
of "the Democratic Republic of East Timor".
In the light of these developments, on November 30, 1975, at Balibo,
UDT, APODETI, KOTA and TRABALHISTA proclaimed the independence
of the territory and its simultaneous integration with Indonesia.
On December 17, 1975, the four parties announced the establishment
of the Provisional Government of East Timor in Dili.
On May 31, 1976, the duly elected People's Assembly of East Timor
decided in an open session to formally integrate the territory
with the Republic of Indonesia. A bill on this integration was
approved by the Indonesian House of Representatives on July 15,
1976 and, with the promulgation by the President, became Law on
July 17. East Timor has since been the 27th province of Indonesia
with all the rights and duties under the 1945 Constitution of
the Republic.
TOP
PANCASILA
DEMOCRACY
Pancasila
Democracy is a system of life for the state and society on the
basis of people's sovereignty. It is inspired by the noble values
of the Indonesian nation. Pancasila itself, which means the five
principles, is the name given to the foundation of the Indonesian
Republic. The five principles of Pancasila are Belief in the One
and Only God; A Just and civilized humanity; the Unity of Indonesia;
Democracy guided by the inner wisdom of deliberations of representatives;
and Social Justice for all the Indonesian people.
Thus Pancasila Democracy means democracy based on people's sovereignty
which is inspired by and integrated with the other principles
of Pancasila. This means that the use of democratic rights should
always be in line with the sense of responsibility towards God
Almighty according to the respective faith; uphold human values
in line with human dignity; guarantee and strengthen national
unity; and be aimed at realizing social justice for the whole
of the people of Indonesia.
In
a democrafic life based on Pancasila, the People's Consultative
Assembly (MPR), being the highest state institution, has a very
important role to play. As an institution which fully exercises
the sovereign rights of the Indonesian people MPR should always
reflect the aspirations and the wishes of the people with all
its decisions or decrees. And as the holder of the highest power
in the state, the Assembly appoints the President and Vice-President
and determines the Guidelines of State Policy for implementation
by the President.
The House of Representatives (DPR), the members of which are from
the people and are elected by the people, has the function of
exercising control over the conduct of the administration by the
President. The mechanism of this control by the House of Representatives
constitutes a means to prevent constitutional deviation or deviations
from the people's wish by the government.
TOP
SIMPLIFICATION
OF POLITICAL PARTIES
The
Govemment Manifesto of November 3, 1945, opened the way to a rapid
growth of political parties. Soon a multi-party system emerged
with parties of different ideologies, ranging from nationalism
to socialism, religion and even Marxism/Leninism. Hence, the political
structure developed into a liberal democracy that was a complete
departure from the type of democracy envisaged by Pancasila.
With sharply conflicting ideologies, political rivalry was the
order of the day and a stable Government was out of the question.
With a total of 24 political parties and their fractions, cabinets
could only be formed on the basis of a shaky compromise between
the strongest parties. In point of fact, coalition cabinets were
formed and dissolved very often. The administration was a complete
shambles and development was a far cry.
The first and only general election ever held during the rule
of the Old Order took place in 1955. Even that election did not
produce a strong cabinet with a solid back-up in Parliament. On
the contrary, because political conditions continued to deterioate,
the President ordered the formation of a Constituent Assembly
to draft a new consfitufion. However, as mentioned earlier, this
only ended up in a total deadlock which led the president to take
all the power of the state into his own hands under the pretext
of guided democracy.
Having learned from the experience of the unlimited multiparty
system of the post, the New Order Government, which came into
office in 1967, decided to simplify the political system along
the following lines:
- In order to
minimize ideological conflicts between political organizations,
all political organizations shall adopt Pancasila as their sole
basis principle.
- To simplify
the political system, particularly for the purpose of choosing
a political organization by the people in general elections
it was felt that the number of these organizations should be
reduced.
- In the past,
villages were made the bases of political activities and maneuvers,
most notably in the heyday of the Indonesian Communist Party.
This adversely affected the social and economic life of the
village populations. Hence, it would be desirable to free villages
from the activities of political organizations.
Furthermore,
the large number of organizations has been reduced by the fusion
of parties and their affiliated organizations into two political
parties - Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (The United Development
Party or Partai Persatuan) and Partai Demokrasi Indonesia (the
Indonesian Democracy Party or PDI), and one Functional Group or
Golongan Karya (Golkar).
Partai Persatuan is a fusion of Nahdlatul Ulama (the Moslem Scholars
Party), Parmusi (the Moslem Party), PSII (the Islamic Confederation)
and PERTI (the Islamic Union).
PDI is a fusion of the former PNI (the Nationalist Party), the
Catholic Party, the Christian (Protestant) Party, the Indonesian
Independence Party, and Partai Murba (the People's Party).
Golkar accommodates the aspirations and political rights and duties
of functional groups that are not affiliated with either party,
namely civil servants, retired members of the Armed Forces, women's
organizations, professional groups, farmers, student, etc.
By virtue of the 1983 Guidelines of State Policy and on the basis
of Act No. 3 of 1985, Pancasila has finally been adopted as the
one and only ideological principle upon which all political organizations
base their activities.
Source : INDONESIA 1996 : AN OFFICIAL HANDBOOK
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